AKTU MCA II SEM CYBER SECURITY NOTES UNIT I

 Introduction to Information Systems

Information systems are a set of interrelated components that collect, process, store, and distribute information for a specific purpose. They are used by organizations to improve their efficiency, effectiveness, and decision-making.

What is an information system?

An information system is an integrated structure that compiles the services of software, human resources, and physical components of technology to gather, store, process, and retrieve information whenever required, in a useful form. This information is used by individuals or organizations for planning, decision-making, and other purposes for the smooth running of the organization.

Why are information systems important?

Information systems are important for a number of reasons. They can help organizations to:

• Improve efficiency: Information systems can automate tasks, which can free up employees to focus on more strategic activities.
• Increase accuracy: Information systems can help to ensure that data is entered and processed accurately, which can reduce errors.
• Improve decision-making: Information systems can provide managers with the information they need to make better decisions.
• Increase productivity: Information systems can help organizations to be more productive by automating tasks and providing access to information.
• Improve customer service: Information systems can help organizations to provide better customer service by providing customers with access to information and by automating tasks such as order processing.

What are the different types of information systems?

There are many different types of information systems, each with its own purpose. Some of the most common types of information systems include:

• Transaction processing systems (TPS): TPS collect and process data about routine business transactions, such as sales orders, inventory records, and payroll.
• Office information systems (OIS): OIS automate office tasks, such as word processing, email, and spreadsheets.
• Management information systems (MIS): MIS provide information to managers to help them make decisions.
• Decision support systems (DSS): DSS provide interactive information and decision-making tools to help managers make decisions in uncertain situations.
• Expert systems: Expert systems use artificial intelligence to mimic the reasoning of experts in a particular field.
• Executive support systems (ESS): ESS provide senior executives with information to help them make strategic decisions.

The pyramidal model of information systems

The pyramidal model of information systems is a way of classifying information systems based on their purpose and scope. The model has four levels:

• Transaction processing systems (TPS) are at the bottom of the pyramid and are used to collect and process data about routine business transactions.
• Management information systems (MIS) are at the middle of the pyramid and provide information to managers to help them make decisions.
• Decision support systems (DSS) are at the top of the pyramid and provide interactive information and decision-making tools to help managers make decisions in uncertain situations.
• Executive support systems (ESS) are at the very top of the pyramid and provide senior executives with information to help them make strategic decisions.

  Types of Information Systems

  The development of information systems was done with a sole objective of simplifying complex data management and meeting different purposes of an organization. There can be numerous needs in an enterprise, and hence there can be various categories of information systems. Each information system has a role to play.

  Here are the six main types of information systems:

  1. Transaction processing systems (TPS): TPS collect and process data about routine business transactions, such as sales orders, inventory records, and payroll. They are the most basic type of information system and are essential for the day-to-day operations of an organization.
  2. Office information systems (OIS): OIS automate office tasks, such as word processing, email, and spreadsheets. They can help to improve efficiency and productivity in the workplace.
  3. Management information systems (MIS): MIS provide information to managers to help them make decisions. They typically include data from TPS and other sources, and are used to track performance, identify trends, and make strategic plans.
  4. Decision support systems (DSS): DSS provide interactive information and decision-making tools to help managers make decisions in uncertain situations. They can be used to analyze data, simulate scenarios, and generate reports.
  5. Expert systems: Expert systems use artificial intelligence to mimic the reasoning of experts in a particular field. They can be used to solve complex problems that would be difficult or impossible for humans to solve on their own.
  6. Executive support systems (ESS): ESS provide senior executives with information to help them make strategic decisions. They typically include data from MIS and other sources, and are used to track the overall performance of the organization and identify opportunities for improvement.

  The pyramidal model of information systems is a way of classifying information systems based on their purpose and scope. The model has four levels:

  • Transaction processing systems (TPS) are at the bottom of the pyramid and are used to collect and process data about routine business transactions.
  • Management information systems (MIS) are at the middle of the pyramid and provide information to managers to help them make decisions.
  • Decision support systems (DSS) are at the top of the pyramid and provide interactive information and decision-making tools to help managers make decisions in uncertain situations.
  • Executive support systems (ESS) are at the very top of the pyramid and provide senior executives with information to help them make strategic decisions.

  Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

  Transaction processing systems (TPS) are the most basic type of information system. They are used to collect and process data about routine business transactions, such as sales orders, inventory records, and payroll. TPS are essential for the day-to-day operations of an organization.

  Some of the characteristics of TPS include:

  • They are used to collect and process data about routine business transactions.
  • They are typically used by operational level employees.
  • They are designed to be efficient and accurate.
  • They are often integrated with other systems, such as OIS and MIS.

  Examples of TPS

  Some examples of TPS include:

• Point-of-sale (POS) systems: POS systems are used to record sales transactions in retail stores.
• Inventory management systems: Inventory management systems track the quantity and location of inventory items.
• Payroll systems: Payroll systems calculate and generate paychecks for employees.
• Customer relationship management (CRM) systems: CRM systems track customer interactions and data.

2. Office Information System

An Office Information System (OIS) is a type of information system that enhances office work performance by improving workflow and communication among employees. The OIS collects and distributes necessary information within the office using hardware, software, and networking. It is also referred to as an Office Automation System.

Key functions of the OIS include:

• Word processing
• Email communication
• Creating and distributing graphics documents
• Workgroup programming
• Facsimile processing
• E-document imaging and workflow management
• Message sending
• Scheduling and accounting

Various software applications are employed, including word processing, presentation graphics, spreadsheets, databases, email, web browsers, and personal information management. Electronic communication methods such as email, video conferencing, facsimile, and electronic transfer of text, graphics, audio, and video are used for quicker interconnection.

Hardware components associated with OIS include computers, laptops, modems, routers, video cameras, speakers, printers, microphones, scanners, and fax machines. OIS benefits all levels of employees by streamlining processes.

For example, in a manual office, documents were physically sent and scanned. In OIS, documents can be emailed, eliminating paper usage, saving time, ensuring delivery, and maintaining confidentiality.

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3. Management Information System

Management Information Systems (MIS) operate at the management level, where managers evaluate organizational performance through data analysis from lower levels. MIS supports various organizational tasks, including planning, control, decision analysis, and decision-making. Key features include:

• MIS complements transaction processing systems, integrating transaction data.
• It encompasses a broader spectrum of tasks than transaction processing, such as planning, controlling, decision analysis, and decision-making.
• MIS provides accurate, timely, and organized information for managers to make decisions, solve problems, monitor, direct, provide feedback, supervise activities, track progress, and make strategic, operational, and tactical decisions.

For instance, a Transaction Processing System (TPS) records sales, credits, debits, and raw materials used. Managers use this data for policy decisions and raw material purchases.

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4. Decision Support System

Decision Support Systems (DSS) are advanced computerized information systems that assist managers in analysing information and making decisions in complex situations. Key characteristics of DSS include:

• DSS employs interactive information systems, databases, and analytical tools for projecting potential decision effects.
• It utilizes simulation models to calculate simulated outcomes of tentative decisions and assumptions.
• DSS employs optimization models to determine optimal decisions based on user criteria, mathematical search techniques, and constraints.
• It handles decisions in unstructured situations, such as emergencies.

DSS uses data from internal and external sources, employing database management systems, query languages, data manipulation tools, financial modeling, simulation models, electronic spreadsheets, online analytical processing, data mining, statistical analysis programs, report generators, and graphic software to provide necessary information.

5. Expert Systems

Expert systems are a specialized type of information system that harnesses the valuable expertise possessed by human experts. They collect, store, and apply human knowledge to solve specific organizational problems. Key features of expert systems include:

• Expert systems emulate human reasoning and decision-making processes.
• An expert system consists of two components: a knowledge base and a user interface. When a user describes a situation to the expert system, the user interface utilizes logical judgments, reasoning, and expertise from the knowledge base to provide a solution.
• Knowledge engineers gather experts' knowledge and implement it within a computer system. Expert systems are also referred to as knowledge-based systems.
• Expert systems represent a significant application of artificial intelligence, imparting human-like intelligence to machines. This includes actions based on experience, logical assumptions, voice recognition, creative responses, and more.
• Expert systems differ from Decision Support Systems (DSS) as they select the best solution for a problem based on a knowledge base, while DSS often relies on a few individuals' judgments.

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6. Executive Support Systems

An Executive Support System (ESS) is a strategic information system situated at the top of the organizational pyramid. It aids executives and senior managers in analyzing the organizational environment to identify long-term trends. Key features of ESS include:

• ESS focuses on meeting the strategic information needs of top management to formulate appropriate organizational strategies. Information in an ESS is presented through charts, tables, trends, ratios, and other managerial statistics.
• ESS explores both internal data sources (e.g., data from Management Information Systems or Transaction Processing Systems) and external data sources such as stock market news, retrieval services, or the Internet. These sources offer current information on interest rates, commodity prices, and economic indicators.
• ESS enhances and extends the capabilities of senior executives, creating an environment that facilitates informed thinking about strategic problems and enables sense-making within their environments.
• ESS often utilizes extensive databases to store the necessary data for decision-making, analyzing historical and current business circumstances.

Development of Information Systems

Information System Development Stages The development of an information system comprises six crucial stages: system survey, needs analysis, design, implementation, testing, and change and maintenance.

1. System Survey The System Life Cycle (SLDC) phase encompasses three key aspects: system identification, selection, and system planning.

   a. System Identification This involves identifying the challenges faced by the company and its existing system. The team seeks opportunities to overcome these challenges.

   b. Selection The selection phase employs evaluation criteria to ensure that development solutions align with the company's intended objectives.

   c. System Planning During this step, a formal plan is created to initiate and implement the chosen information system development concept.

2. Needs Analysis System requirements analysis involves breaking down system components to solve problems. The goal is to gain a deeper understanding of how each component functions and interacts with others.

   Aspects targeted in needs analysis for information system development include:

   • Business users
   • Job analysis
   • Business processes
   • Agreed rules
   • Problems and solutions
   • Business tools
   • Business plans

3. Design System design aims to provide a comprehensive blueprint as a guide for the IT team, especially programmers, in developing applications. This ensures a structured approach to decision-making and work.

4. Implementation This stage involves putting into action the previously designed development.

5. Testing System testing is crucial to confirm whether the development aligns with expected results. Various tests are conducted, including performance, input efficiency, program logic (syntax), and output tests.

   This stage requires preparation of multiple supporting aspects. Apart from applications, readiness of hardware and other related facilities is essential. Implementation activities include data migration (conversion), user training, and trials.

6. Change and Maintenance This step encompasses the entire process to ensure system continuity, smooth operation, and enhancement. Maintenance involves monitoring the system periodically, addressing minor bugs (errors), making system improvements, and preparing for potential risks from external factors.

7. Information Security: Safeguarding Digital Assets

   Information Security is far more than just preventing unauthorized access. It's a comprehensive practice aimed at safeguarding data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, inspection, recording, or destruction. This pertains to both physical and electronic information, encompassing various forms such as your social media profiles, mobile phone data, and biometrics. Information Security is a multidisciplinary field, intertwining domains like Cryptography, Mobile Computing, Cyber Forensics, and Online Social Media.

   Historical Context: The origins of Information Security trace back to the First World War, where a Multi-tier Classification System was designed to address the sensitivity of information. The Second World War saw the formal alignment of this Classification System. A prominent figure in Information Security, Alan Turing, successfully decrypted the Enigma Machine, a German encryption tool used for warfare data.

   The CIA Triad: Information Security programs revolve around three core objectives, encapsulated in the acronym CIA:

   1. Confidentiality: Ensures information isn't revealed to unauthorized parties. For instance, if someone glimpses your password during a Gmail login, your password's confidentiality is compromised.

   2. Integrity: Focuses on maintaining data accuracy and completeness. This prevents unauthorized modifications. For instance, when an employee leaves an organization, their status should be accurately updated across departments.

   3. Availability: Ensures that information is accessible when needed. Collaboration across organizational teams ensures timely access to vital information. Denial of service attacks can disrupt information availability.

   Non-Repudiation and More: Apart from the CIA Triad, another vital principle governs Information Security programs: Non-Repudiation.

   • Non-Repudiation: This principle prevents parties from denying sending or receiving a message or transaction. Cryptography's digital signatures, matched with sender's private key, verify authenticity and ensure data integrity.

   • Authenticity: It guarantees that users are who they claim to be and that inputs are from trusted sources. This is achieved through techniques like digital signatures, which ensure valid transmissions and genuine messages.

   • Accountability: This principle enables tracing actions back to specific entities. Departments authorized for specific actions, validated by higher authorities, along with time stamped records, ensure accountability.

   Information Assurance: The Core of Information Security: At the heart of Information Security lies Information Assurance, which upholds the CIA principles even in critical scenarios like natural disasters or system malfunctions. The field offers diverse specializations, including network security, application and database security, security testing, information systems auditing, and business continuity planning.

8. The Need for Information Security:

   1. Protecting the Functionality of the Organization: The decision maker in organizations must set policy and operate their organization in compliance with the complex, shifting legislation, efficient, and capable applications.

   2. Enabling the Safe Operation of Applications: The organization is under immense pressure to acquire and operate integrated, efficient, and capable applications. The modern organization needs to create an environment that safeguards applications using the organization's IT systems, particularly those applications that serve as important elements of the infrastructure of the organization.

   3. Protecting the Data that the Organization Collect and Use: Data in the organization can be in two forms – either in rest or in motion. The motion of data signifies that data is currently used or processed by the system. The values of the data motivated the attackers to seal or corrupt the data. This is essential for the integrity and the values of the organization’s data. Information security ensures the protection of both data in motion as well as data at rest.

   4. Safeguarding Technology Assets in Organizations: The organization must add intrastate services based on the size and scope of the organization. Organizational growth could lead to the need for public key infrastructure (PKI), an integrated system of the software, encryption methodologies. The information security mechanism used by large organizations is complex in comparison to a small organization. The small organization generally prefers symmetric key encryption of data.

9. Threats to Information Security:

   Information Security threats can take various forms, including software attacks, theft of intellectual property, identity theft, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion. A threat can exploit vulnerabilities to breach security and negatively impact, alter, erase, or harm objects of interest.

   Software attacks encompass various types of malicious software, such as Viruses, Worms, and Trojan Horses. While many users mistakenly equate malware, viruses, worms, and bots, they are distinct in their behavior and purpose.

   Malware Categories:

   Infection Methods:

   1. Virus: Viruses have the ability to replicate themselves by attaching to programs on host computers, such as songs or videos. They spread across the Internet. For instance, the Creeper Virus was the first to be detected on ARPANET. Examples include File Virus, Macro Virus, Boot Sector Virus, Stealth Virus, etc.

   2. Worms: Worms are also self-replicating but do not attach themselves to programs on host computers. Unlike viruses, worms are network-aware and can travel between computers if a network is available. They can consume hard disk space, slowing down the computer.

   3. Trojan: Trojans are different from viruses and worms. The name comes from the 'Trojan Horse' tale in Greek mythology, where Greeks entered Troy by hiding soldiers in a wooden horse gift. Trojans disguise themselves as legitimate software. Once executed, they perform tasks like stealing information or providing a backdoor for malicious programs. Examples include FTP Trojans, Proxy Trojans, Remote Access Trojans.

   4. Bots: Bots are automated processes that interact over the internet without human intervention. They can be beneficial or malicious. Malicious bots can infect hosts and create connections to a central server, forming a botnet that issues commands to all infected hosts.

   5. Malware on the Basis of Actions:

      1. Adware: Adware breaches user privacy by displaying ads on a computer's desktop or within programs. Often bundled with free software, it generates revenue for developers. Adware monitors user interests to display relevant ads and can potentially compromise a machine if embedded with malicious code.

      2. Spyware: Spyware monitors computer activities and shares collected information with interested parties. It is commonly delivered by Trojans, viruses, or worms, installing silently to avoid detection. Keyloggers are a type of spyware that records user keystrokes, capturing sensitive information like usernames, passwords, and credit card details.

      3. Ransomware: Ransomware encrypts files or locks a computer, rendering it partially or entirely inaccessible. Attackers demand payment (ransom) to restore access.

      4. Scareware: Scareware poses as a helpful tool but infects or destroys systems upon execution. It frightens users into taking actions like paying to fix the system.

      5. Rootkits: Rootkits aim to gain administrative privileges in a user system. Once achieved, attackers can steal private files or data.

      6. Zombies: Zombies, similar to spyware, wait for commands from hackers without actively stealing information.

      Other Threats:

      • Theft of Intellectual Property: Violating copyright and patent rights. • Identity Theft: Impersonating someone to access personal or vital information, including social media accounts or computer login credentials. • Theft of Equipment and Information: Increasing due to mobile devices' mobility and growing information capacity. • Sabotage: Destroying a company's website to undermine customer confidence. • Information Extortion: Stealing company property or information for payment, as seen in ransomware attacks.

      These traditional attacks persist while new generation threats emerge, including:

      • Technology with Weak Security: New gadgets often lack proper security measures, leading to data theft. • Social Media Attacks: Cybercriminals target websites frequented by specific organizations to steal information. • Mobile Malware: Gaming applications attract users to download them, unknowingly installing malware or viruses on their devices. • Outdated Security Software: Frequent security software updates are essential to ensure a fully secure environment. • Corporate Data on Personal Devices (BYOD): The trend of bringing personal devices to workplaces poses a significant threat to data security, despite productivity arguments. • Social Engineering: Manipulating people into divulging confidential information or gaining access to their computers. For instance, sending infected emails or messages that recipients are likely to open due to the sender's familiarity.

   6. Information Assurance (IA)

      Information Assurance (IA) refers to the practice of managing risks related to information and protecting information systems, including computer and network systems.

      The US Government defines information assurance as: "measures that protect and defend information and information systems by ensuring their availability, integrity, authentication, confidentiality, and non-repudiation. These measures include providing for restoration of information systems by incorporating protection, detection, and reaction capabilities."

      The 5 Pillars of Information Assurance

      Information Assurance (IA) focuses on safeguarding information systems and is built upon five key pillars:

      1. Integrity: Ensuring that data remains accurate, complete, and unaltered during storage, processing, or transmission. Maintaining data integrity prevents unauthorized modifications.

      2. Availability: Ensuring that information and systems are accessible and functional when needed by authorized users. Measures are taken to prevent disruptions or downtime.

      3. Authentication: Verifying the identity of users, systems, or devices to ensure that they are who they claim to be. Strong authentication mechanisms protect against unauthorized access.

      4. Confidentiality: Protecting sensitive information from unauthorized access or disclosure. Encryption and access controls are often used to maintain confidentiality.

      5. Nonrepudiation: Ensuring that actions or transactions cannot be denied by the parties involved. It prevents individuals from denying their involvement in a transaction and helps establish accountability.

      These five pillars of information assurance are adaptable and can be tailored to the specific needs and sensitivity of an organization's information or information systems. They form the foundation for secure operations, particularly within the global environment of the US Government.

   7. Cyber Security Risk Analysis

      Risk analysis involves assessing and evaluating potential risks associated with specific actions, events, or projects. In the realm of information technology and cybersecurity, risk analysis is utilized to quantify and qualify risks, making it possible to anticipate, manage, and mitigate potential threats. Risks are inherent in IT projects and business operations, and conducting regular risk analyses helps identify new threats and minimize their potential impact.

      Enterprises and organizations employ risk analysis for various purposes:

      • Anticipating and Mitigating Harmful Effects: Risk analysis helps foresee and reduce the negative outcomes stemming from adverse events.
      • Planning for Equipment or Technology Failure: It prepares organizations for potential equipment or technology failures resulting from natural or human-induced events.
      • Balancing Project Risks: Risk analysis aids in evaluating whether the potential risks associated with a project are outweighed by its potential benefits before deciding to proceed.
      • Adapting to Environmental Changes: Organizations can identify the impact of changes in their operational environment and prepare accordingly.

      Steps in the Risk Analysis Process

      The risk analysis process typically involves several key steps:

      1. Conduct a Risk Assessment Survey: Gather input from management and department heads to document specific risks or threats within each department.

      2. Identify the Risks: Evaluate the IT system or organizational aspects to identify risks related to software, hardware, data, and IT employees. This step involves recognizing potential adverse events like human errors, flooding, fires, earthquakes, etc.

      3. Analyze the Risks: Analyze each identified risk, assessing the consequences associated with them and determining how they might impact IT project objectives.

      4. Develop a Risk Management Plan: Based on the risk analysis, prioritize valuable assets and potential threats. Create a risk management plan that outlines control recommendations to mitigate, transfer, accept, or avoid risks.

      5. Implement the Risk Management Plan: This step involves implementing measures to remove or reduce the identified risks. Prioritize the most critical risks and work to resolve or mitigate them.

      6. Monitor the Risks: Regularly monitor the identified security risks, ensuring that any emerging risks are promptly identified, treated, and managed. Ongoing risk monitoring is essential to the risk analysis process.

      Through these steps, organizations can systematically assess, manage, and mitigate risks associated with their IT systems and projects, enhancing their overall cybersecurity posture and minimizing potential vulnerabilities.

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   9. Cyber Security

      Cybersecurity, also known as information technology (IT) security, involves protecting critical systems and sensitive information from digital attacks. It encompasses practices aimed at safeguarding networked systems, applications, and digital assets against threats originating from within or outside an organization. The primary objective is to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information.